The Growth Development And Industrial Policy Economics Essay

The Growth Development And industrial Policy Economics strain1. Economic evolution is the increase of per capita gross domestic product (gross domestic product) or another(prenominal) measure of aggregate income, typic all toldy reported as the annual ordain of change in true(a) GDP. Economic harvest-tide is primarily driven by advancements in productivity, which involves producing to a greater extent superbs and services with the same inputs of labor, capital, dynamism and materials. Economists draw a distinction between short- terminal sparing stabilization and long-term economic harvest. The topic of economic growth is primarily pertain with the long run. The short-run variation of economic growth is termed the business cycle. The rate of economic growth is measured by the percentage increase in output over a 12 month period.Governments aim to secure high levels of stable economic growth over the long term avoiding occurances much(prenominal) as recessions and pe riods of excessive short term growth which trick non be sustained. The government agency in Britain, and doneout a tremendous portion of the valet de chambre at the moment, is a good example of how stable growth was not respected. By not maintaing a constant level of aggregate demand, fluctuations lead occur, moving the circular flow of income from a tell apart of equilibirum to a secernate of disequilibrium this is a natural occurance within an saving, as a rise in aggregate demand demonstrates Economic Growth and vice versa. Unemployment will to a fault fall in relation to growth, inflation rates are in all probability to rise, with the gap between exports and imports narrowing as consumer demand for less expensive forgein produced products increases and demand for domestically produced goods decreases.Benefits of GrowthIncreased levels of consumptionAvoidance of macroeconomic problemsRedistri merelyion of income to the poorGreater societal care for the environmentIn p ossibility Growth should make people happier as income will be to a greater extent evenly distri merelyed, meaning everyone has more cash to spend, up(p) quality of aliveness the shovel in side is that this whitethorn not actually happen, and none of the in a higher place improvements may actually occur.Costs of GrowthOpportunity cost of growthGrowth may simply generate extra demandsociable effects and Enviornmental beShortage of Non-Re unusedable resources fossil fuels and minerals e.g.Distribution of Income rich nettle richer, poor get poorer?Changes in production people with basic skills may find they are no longer call for, so without further schooling of training my no longer be employable.Should countries pursue their goals of economic growth? This is a decision to be made in relation to the benefits and cost involved, i.e. each countries situation will be different and their great deal be no difinitive yes or no answer.Economic development in its simplest breed is the creation of economic wealth for all citizens within the diverse layers of ball club so that all people have access to potential change magnitude quality of life. Job creation, economic output and increase in taxable basis are the most common measurement tools.Structural transformation, improving the quality and productivity of resources and improving the standard of living of a nations population, by means of sustained growth from a simple, low-income economy to a modern, high-income economy, are desireable goals for many(prenominal) government to try and achieve. Improving quality of life in eddy relates to improving economic development would be enhanced, including the process and policies by which a nation enhances the economic, political, and social hygienic-being of its people.2.Public insurance policy generally aims at continuous and sustained economic growth and expansion of national economies so that ontogenesis countries become developed countries. The econ omic development process supposes that effective and institutional ad providedments are made to give incentives for innovation and for enthronizations so as to develop an efficient production and distribution system for goods and services.http//schumpeter2006.org/blog/2006/12/20/definition-of-economic-development/In relation to developing countries, Economic Development keep be interpreted in both a affirmatory and banish manner. For example, the government of Sri Lanka has been consistant in their attempts to push the boorish towards economic development since the 1970s. some different approaches have been taken, but a common theme of guiltless market principles and structutal reform have been successful in keeping the plans for growth and development on track. Of course, there have been fluctuations these are fundamental for any(prenominal) country, let alone those in the developing world, pursuing such goals. consider backs such as political pressures, involving civil war and forgein targetment, as well as a massive drought, have been hugely influential in the path of the countries progress. However, as a result of perseverance and a panorama realistic short term goals, the successive governments have been fortunate to see positive developments, especially since 2002 when a ceasefire was signed between the government and rabble-rousing groups and the drought which has hampered development ended, allowing reliable power sources to be restored and the agricultural pains to lower their prices. Working in conjunction with the International Monetary line of descent (IMF) more targets were set for the 2003-2006 time period. Along with the new laws which were introduced, concerning areas such as tax and welfare reform, as well as investment deregulation, the country accept is to establish terminaling peace through relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction.The fluctuations detect over this time period show clear examples of the negative and posi tive sides of growth and development, for example, the social effects displayed through the cival unrest and the environmental costs take a shitd by the droughts. On a more positive note, it can be seen the the distribution of wealth is becoming more even as a result of the reforms instigated in 2003. A level of health care is provided for at large(p) midwifey care is one such service now available, although many others such as blood transfusions are still very expensive. The government hope to influence and change this with their incubated action through a minute of key policies1) restoring fiscal sustainability, including raising revenues by 21/2% of GDP 2) implementing structural reforms mainly involving deregulation and privatization 3) creating opportunities for the poor to share more amply in the benefits of economic growth through improvements in infrastructure and facts of life and 4) garnering resources for reconstruction, including though donor assistance and govern ment investments.Like many other industrialized nations of the West, the United Kingdom has sought to combine steady economic growth with a high level of employment, increased productivity, and continuing improvement in living standards. Attainment of these basic objectives, however, has been hindered since World War II by recurrent deficits in the balance of payments and by severe inflationary pressures. As a result, economic policy has chiefly had to be say toward correcting these two underlying weaknesses in the economyThe Conservative government take in 1979 sought to reduce the role of government in the economy by improving incentives, removing controls, reducing taxes, moderating the money supply, and privatizing several large state-owned companies. This policy was continued by succeeding Conservative governments into the 1990s. The election of a Labour government in 1997 did not reverse this trend. Indeed, privatization is now wide accepted by most of the Labour Party (with the exception of the dwindling numbers of the wing of the party with strong ties to business unions).The most heavy issue facing Britain in the early 2000s was membership in the European Monetary Union (EMU). Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair decided to take out of EMU at its inception in 1998 and has promised a referendum on British membership. The op mooring Conservatives oppose abandoning the pound and have the support of a majority of the British population on the issue. In June 2003, the chancellor of the treasury stated that Britain was not yet ready to enter the euro zone, which made a referendum in the current parliament unlikely, at least until a new government would be seated in 2005. The government in 2003 employ its attention on the domestic front to improving such exoteric services as health, education, and transportation.http//www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Europe/United-Kingdom-ECONOMIC-DEVELOPMENT.htmlindustrial PolicyIndustrial policy is a government funded progr am that encourages the public and one-on-one sector to create new engineering science which in time leads to economic growth. This new technology can be used to create new industries within the precondition country which in time can lead to greater levels of employment. It can in like manner be used to save an industry that may be outdated or failing.The government run these programs in many ways. wholeness way they can do it is by funding a private establishment to carry out the research. This funding can be through tax breaks or the organisation could be a direct supplemental to the government. The programs could likewise be government run this has less of an advantage as private organisations are usually in a better position to carry out this research.Does it ca-ca?Its not clean established economic countries that have industrial policy either and it can be just as if not more important for newly formed industrial countries as well. This is due to the resources needed f or economic growth, which at the start can be easy for a country to do. As it gets bigger it requires more and more resources in order to maintain this growth and without appropriate investment this would not be possible. The Korean government did this by offering monetary incentives and reduced tax to organisations setting up in the country, whilst this has worked well for them as a developing country, the practises are now banned by the WTO for developing countries and as such wouldnt help smaller countries in the same situation Korean was in some 40 historic period ago.Over the last few years with the recession damaging world economies it has been quite big(p) to define between industrial policy and government bail outs. In the UK the government bailed out RBS as it knew that it would be fundamental in the growth in the countrys economy. But just because a government invests money into an organisation doesnt necessarily mean that the company is fundamental in the development of that countrys economy. subject France for example in 2008 at the generatening of the recession a British born French bet company began to slowly slip, the country bailed the toy company, these actions would normally be associated with an organisation that in fundamental to the growth of the country, but they chose this to safe guard the jobs of some of their citizens. With this in mind we are outlet to look at examples where industrial policy is more obvious and whether argue to some educated beliefs industrial policy does exist in the UK.A good example of industrial policy in many countries just now is competency. All across the world the focus is slowly switching towards renewable energy. Government s are paying incredible sums of money to develop new ways of harnessing renewable energy as they turn in in the long run it will be essential to maintain their economic growth. A country that is investing massively in renewable energy is China, (The Economist, 2010) stated t hat over the next 10 China would invest nearly a trillion yen which equate to about 80 billion on nuclear power. This is done using a change of state owned organisations i.e. banks and also through private organisations which are hence government subsidised. The energy companies are paid massive amounts of money to work creating this new technology. As well as this the Chinese government also made it a rule that any foreign companies wishing to trade in that market must give in technological secrets to the topical anesthetic electricity companies. This economic policy is what has allowed the Chinese electricity market to openhanded so quickly and will allow the energy market to continue to grow at its current rate.With all this success in industrial policy in the Far East and in Europe some would presume that Industrial Policy is a good thing but there are also arguments against Industrial policy, the main one looks close at the length of time it takes for the country to get any real benefit out of their investment. This point is summarised by Mr E GLAESER of (THE NEW YORK TIMES, 2011), who says in the buff industries dont grow on trees. They require years of investment and development, an educated work force and an international market for those services. Thats why the administration is pushing green energy in the stimulus, offering tax credits for renewable energy and solar power, pushing for expanded community college enrolment, and talking about an export-driven recovery. This sounds smart. But it is the style of public policy labour whose fruits wont be apparent for years. This is all quite fitting however as America have a track record in not having a very good Industrial Policy and one that is also heavily focused in out dated dirty energy.How does industrial policy effect the UK?Industrial Policy has slowly disappeared over the last couple of decades in the UK, as privatisation crept in under the Conservative Government in the 1980s the companies that were state owned and that Industrial policies has originally protected became privately owned. Since 1995 the shift has been from Industrial Policy towards more Rural and Urban policy. This is where the government breaks the country down into its constituencies to try and target its investment towards areas that require it most. It encourages organisations to open up and begin trading in these areas creating jobs and training opportunities for people living in these areas very much suffering from multiple levels of deprivation. Each area is looked at differently as no area is ever the same and where different forms of investment is required then that local council receives the money to try and combat this problem.Examples of how Rural or Regional Policy has improved the UK in the last 5 years can be seen in Glasgow with the Commonwealth Games. The Scottish Government has presumptuousness a lot of to regenerate the east end of Glasgow, this regional policy has boosted employm ent in the area and will make the area a more viable business location with improvements to transport links and a facelift for the surroundings. (Community Care, 2010) emphasises that as well as a20 trillion direct financial investment, the games will also created 1000 new jobs and also 1000 affordable homes in Glasgows east end.

Piagets Theory Of Child Development

Piagets Theory Of barbarian DevelopmentGrand training opening outline the strengths and weaknesses of Piagets conjecture of nestling discipline. Do you think that Piaget s theories placid wee an important place in advanced(a) psychology? creative activityIn the 20s century, the extending signal(a) main surmise of fry discipline was established by Jean Piaget (Miller, 2011649). Piagets contribution (1986-1980) has had great rivals on throw out outgrowthal psychology, specially in the bea of pip-squeak and cognitive organic evolution. He also holdd a scientific method to understand developingal experience among infancy and pip-squeakishness (Oates Grayson, 2004 14). Piaget tried to agnise the root of goldbricking in infancy and the change of their knowledge which find over the layover of time. He thought children pass a series of cognitive variants in the similar sanctify (Bernstein Roy, 2008 464). Although Piagets possibleness of cognitive learn ing has criticized pay up to(p) to defect in n primeval respects (Lourenco Machado, 1996), his nonions close children and their cognitive suppuration have signifi cleart effected on teachingal psychology (Bernstein Roy, 2008 464). This appellation for the beginning timely will demonstrate Piagets contribution in the plain of child growing .it then it presentations the weaknesses of Piagets conjecture about cognitive outgrowth among children. And it then describe Piagets theory and modern psychology.Piaget soulfulnessaPiaget is a professional expert in the field of cognitive increase. Beilin (1992 191, cited in Shaffer Kipp, 2010 278) put it, assessing the impact of Piaget on develop psychological psychology is analogous assessing the impact of Shakespeargon on English literature or Aristotle on philosophy unsuffer satisfactory. Furthermore, a nonher famous expert in the field of child development his name is Flavall also stated that m any(prenominal) of Piagets c ontributions have sustain so actually a great deal a part of the way we view cognitive development nowadays that they argon virtually invisible (Flavell, 1996 202, cited in Kail, 2012 179).In terms of childrens thinking, Piaget revealed that childrens thinking is non as akin as adults. Piaget emphasized that children require obtaining experience to learn. Then they burn down acquire their give affinity plan and deviate them in necessary time. This method to tutor children was very diverse if comparing with opposite approach which had before him. thus Piaget has a essential effect on the education of children (Westman and Costello, 2011 16).With respects of applying Piagets theory to educate children, the Piagets approach of education has had a leaden effect on education cognitive process. Piagets developmental theory has had triplet major implications for educating children. Firstly, in terms of readiness, children have to be taught gibe to their ability particula rly the t from each oneing of science and mathsematics. In addition, the tasks which be primp by the teachers have to be appropriate to the level of childrens light and cognition. Secondly, as regards curriculum, teaching recourses such as science and math should pertain concrete materials which students basis occasion them skillfully. Thirdly, children learn from self-activity and feats and teachers must understand any childs requirements in order to build knowledge in terms of their emergencys (Gross, 2010 538).Piaget transformed cognition into developmental science. Piaget proved that cognition is the main part of the science of cognitive development. He also demonstrate why the processes of cognition atomic number 18 the central of development psychology and offered near approaches which can be employed to test them (Kail, 2012 179). Piaget provided the development psychology with a completely new nonion about childrens nature, and the cognition of child developme nt how and when occurs. Hence the role of Piaget in the development of cognition was as similar as Chomskys make on the development of language (Flavell, 1996 200).Piaget subject the puts of cognitive development among children. Feldman (2013 352) state that No theory of cognitive development has had more impact than that of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget .He thought that children pass a series of four phases in unchangeable order. Piaget preserved that the cognitive stages vary non merely in the quantity of knowledge at each phases, however, in the quality of understanding and information as well (Feldman, 2013 352).the weaknesses of Piaget theoryDespite all of these Piagets contribution, his theory about the child development has been criticized by round psychologists in order to reveal some weaknesses. His theory has some shortcomings which including underestimate and overestimate childs capacity, ignoring cultivation influence on child development and methodological syste mal limitations.Piaget underestimated and overestimated children capability.Underestimate of infancy and childhoods competence and overestimate the capability of youthfuls could be considered as a major defect in Piagets theory. The contemporary science of child development has exposed that toddlers and childs have capability more than Piagets outlook (Kail, 2012180). Some skilled cognition among children appears earlier than Piaget realized and others emerge last mentioned (Carpenter, 2011, cited in Santrock, 201150). As an example, evidences have been revealed that inclination performance in children undertake to develop 3 to 4 months earlier than he believed (Baillargeon, 2002 Wang, Baillargeon, Paterson, 2005, cited in Weiten, 2010 456). This doer childs have greater ability to understand object glasss than Piaget thought (Kail, 2012181). nevertheless, some adolescents competence was overestimated by Piagets cognitive theory (Cacioppo and Freberg, 2013 531). corresp ond to Piaget children in formal operation stage can understand the principles of math (Pastorino and Doyle-Portillo, 2013 340). Nevertheless, Cacioppo and Freberg (2013 531) state that Piaget was very wrong because of the level of childrens thinking is not fully hop on, hence they cannot think logically.Piaget ignored cultural influence on cognitive developmentAnother criticism which has directed Piagets theory is that the impact of well-disposed milieu and cultural factors in childs cognitive development were paid small attention by Piaget (Costello Westman, 2001138). heathen and life pattern has more effect than Piaget thought on cognitive development. As an example, nomadic tribe does not interest in computation objects. Thus nomadic children learn conservancy of figures later than in Western culture (Franzoi, 2011237). Another illustration of this the children in Hausa tribe in Nigeria do not know about conservation principles, because families in this tribe send their ch ildren to the take aim in premature age (Fahrmeier, 1978, cited in Martin, Carlson and Buskist, 1997 513). Although the impact of cultural factors on the rate of cognitive development was admitted by Piaget, the contemporary science of developmental psychology has found that culture has a great role in childs thinking as well (Gauvain, 2001 Rogoff, 1998, 2003, cited in Shaffer Kipp 280). At the same time Piaget neglected social interaction among individuals in cognitive development (Shaffer Kipp 280). Interaction with peers, family members even whit teachers led to develop children understands. Piaget sometimes mentioned the influence of social environment and he did not ignore it at all (Kail, 2012181). He believed that social interaction assists children to avoid swelled headcentric tendency. However he did not find how social interaction assists childs development (Fleming, 2004 30)Methodological and approach barriers.Piagets theory has been criticized not save with regard to problem of estimate children ability but his theory has some problem in terms of the principles of developmental science. In terms of take after his childs Piaget has not observed a great variety of children, Instead of Piaget examines 30 or 40 children in his research to find a sizable result he studied his own children at the Rousseau Institute. This sum he has a small case study, the probability of biases in interpretable behavior of his own children, the difficulty in controlling environment and do his observation single in the laboratory (Miller, 2012, 85)Piaget usually utilized the clinical method. Employing clinical method to observe children might lead to give dissimilar questions to different children. However, uniform materials, instructions and measures of answer questions are the spine of experimental psychology (Miller, 2012, 85).Modern psychologists have been frustrated by Piagets reports of his experiment. Piaget did not mention bout the level of social econ omy of children, the number of instrumentalists, participants race and even he did not give us enough detail about his testing procedures as well. It might be difficult to decide whether Piaget is describing to children hypothetically or he really tried and true children. Piaget was poor in analyze of statistics. In his words, Psychologists over-generalized their methods and arrived at delightful trivialities, particularly when an army of scientists translated their results into mathematical terms (1918, p. 63). Furthermore, acute observation, in particular when made by a good observer . . . , surpasses all statistics (1936/1952, p. 72, cited in Miller, 2012, 85-86). Statistical summaries were not given by Piaget about his discovery, he supplied a specimen protocols which are lengthy see by Piaget. Therefore he reads frequently cannot understand Piagets themes intimately (Miller, 2012, 85-86).Piaget and modern psychologyDespite all of these shortcomings, Piaget has remained as a substantial character in the realm of cognitive psychology (Lourenco Machado, 1996, cite in Woolf, Namy, Lynn and Lilienfeld, 2011 375). Nowadays, based on Piagets theory the science of cognitive development has been re-conceptualized by psychologists (Woolf, Namy, Lynn and Lilienfeld, 2011 375). Moreover, according to Fleming (2004 31) the influence of Piagets theories on cognitive development among children will probably continue for a long time.Piagets Theory of Child DevelopmentPiagets Theory of Child DevelopmentThe first two eld are very important in a child development. In this essay you will find the rudimentary concepts and theories of cognitive, social and excited development in infancy. I am going to explain what cognitive development is and focus on cognitive theory of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and erudition of language and perception. This essay will tell you what are the most car park emotions of infants and what can causes it. Also, it will introduce you to psychoanalytical theories of a child development by Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson and the differences amidst it. What is more, I will explain what supplement is and the splendour of it, also, explain Bowlbys addendum theory and how attachment develops during the first two old age. In this essay I will explain why social workers need to know child development theories and why they may come in take on with the infant and his or her family.Infancy. Infancy is the boundary of human development from lineage to around 18 24 months. The period of infancy is in the main defined and depends on social convention. Infants depend on more mature caregivers to meet all their inevitably, who support their development (Davies, 2008).One of the main tailors of development is nature versus nurture. The supporters of nature emphasize the importance of genes and biology. According to them, all usual children discover the same development milestones at similar times and differences am ong children occur due to differences in genetic makeups. Meanwhile, nurture supporters emphasize environment-conditions and events outside the person (Sigelman, 1999).Cognitive developmentCognitive theories emphasize mental aspects of development, for example logic and memory. Jean Piaget was one of the most influential theorists of development psychology. He had been poring over childrens development of logical thinking for six decades (Boyd, Bee, 2009). The success of Piaget theory is largely due to accurate observations of his children at home (Slee, 2002).According to Piaget the childs ability to think, causa and understand the world is rapidly growing during the first two years of life. He or she is an active participant in growth process (Slee, 2002).Piaget claims that key elements in cognitive development are absorption and accommodation. When a child incorporates new information into existing patterns of thought and behaviour assimilation occurs. Meanwhile, during accom modation the infant has to change an existing structure in order to deal with new information (Slee, 2002).Piaget believed that the process of learning is intrinsically strong to the infant. Moreover, the first 18 months of life represent enormous gains in the infants reason development. (Slee, 2002, p.143)Piaget divided cognitive development into four major periods. The period from birth to age 2 is called sensorimotor stage (Sigelman, 1999). Throughout this stage the infant is actively discovering about the world and his or her effects upon it. (Durkin, 1995) In this period intelligence is manifested in action (Mussen, Conger, Kagan, Huston, 1990). It is divided into 6 substages (Slee, 2002).During substage 1(0-1 months) reflexes, for example suction, are being used in order to assimilate their experience of the world. During first month reflex, such as suck, is modified and poses more efficient. But not all reflexes change in this substage (Slee, 2002).According to Piaget in substage 2 (1-4 months), the key element is a repetition of movements, or aboriginal circulation reactions. It involves only infants own body, for instance, infant finds having a thumb in mouth a good-natured sensation and if the thumb falls out, he or she will estimate to put it back (Slee, 2002).In substage 3 (4-8 months) the repetition of primary tirade reactions acts on the world outside the childs body (Slee, 2002). By repeating some actions the infant tries to trigger reactions outside his or her body (Boyd, Bee, 2009).In substage 4 (8-12 months) the infant becomes capable of keeping a goal in listen and achieving it. The baby is able to combine two schemes in order to achieve his or her goal, for example moving aside a pillow in order to reach a toy (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Substage 5 (12-18 months) is a stage of tertiary circular reactions during which the infant is actively seeking novelty and the child experiments. (Slee, 2002) It is the time when the infant tries out new shipway of playing and manipulating objects (Boyd, Bee, 2009).In the final substage 6 (18-24 months) the infant becomes able to manipulate mental symbols, such as words and images. Symbols start to represent objects or events (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Many studies have shown that Piaget have underestimated the cognitive capacity of children. Researchers discovered that infants better understand object movements, than Piaget suggested and imitation appears at younger age (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Language. Piaget did not focus much on the development of language. Even though, infants make a huge progress, commencement with babbling to the earliest ability to understand the meaning of individual words, to first word at around 12 months of age (Wilson, et al., 2008). At the initiatening infants can understand many more words than they can use in their own speech. The infant develops a wide range of communicative gestures, before using words (Lefrancois, 1999). At this time infants tend to learn wor ds slowly, but from 16 months to the end of second year they start acquiring words much faster. By 24 months infants are able to use 300 words (Wilson, et al., 2008).There is also known that children begin to splatter sooner, develop larger vocabularies if their parents talk to them often, read to them regularly and use wide range of words (Boyd, Bee, 2009).In general language attainment follows a regular sequence, although, there are wide variations in the patters and quicken of language. Some children start using individual words at 8 months, meanwhile others not until 18 months (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Speech delays can be an early indicator of the childs atypical development. (Wilson, et al., 2008)Perception. With the help of the various sensory modalities, like sight, hearing, admiration and smell, infants pay attention to the changes around them (Slee, 2002). Early perceptual learning depends on experiences (Boyd, Bee, 2009).During first 2 months, babies are looking for meaningf ul patterns. Sharp-dark light contrast, which ordinarily signals the edge of some object, stops babies scanning the world around them. amid 2 and 3months the infant starts paying attention to what the object is, rather than where the object is (Boyd, Bee, 2009). Babies are able to differentiate sound to an impressive degree. They can dissever the loudness and pitch of sound. DeCasper and Fifer found that infant is capable to recognise mothers persona from another female person voice, but not fathers voice from another male voice. Soon after birth infants are able to identify the showtime of odour and react to it, by turning towards or away from it. Infants show preference for sweet substances (Slee, 2002).EmotionsCrying, smiling and fear reactions are the most pop emotions of the infant, according to the most of research .Gianino and Tronick argued that infants are capable to regulate or control their emotions, for example by turning away or sucking a thumb (Lefrancois, 1999). Infant crying, explain Pinyerd, is one the infants main ways of communicating both physiological and psychological distress. However, not all infant cries are cries of painful sensation, hunger or distress. (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 161). Crying because of hunger or pain can be eliminated meanwhile, unidentifiable cry is harder to stop. Constant crying can be highly annoying for parents and siblings (Lefrancois, 1999).Smiling and laughing is a meaning part of parent-child interaction. First grinning can appear as early as two to twelve hours after birth, even though it is not a social smile, but rather a reflex. favorable smile is a response to auditory and visual stimuli, for example response to a caregivers face. From 3 month the infant is able to produce selective social smile. The infants react to social stimuli that are familiar (Lefrancois, 1999).According to Watson and Rayner, loud noises and fast loss of support can cause the infants fear. To paraphrase Hebb, fear can occu r then the infant develops certain expectations about the world and those expectations are violated (Lefrancois, 1999).Psychoanalytical theoriesPsychoanalytic theorists believe that development change happens because of national drives and emotions influence behaviour. (Bee, Boyd, 2009, p. 27) According to this theory infants get more pleasure from mouthing objects than from manipulating them with other parts of their body (Boyd, Bee, 2009).According to Freuds genius development theory, at birth infants were equipped with biological instincts that demanded satisfaction, which was determined by self-presentation and procreation (Slee, 2002). Freud argued that there are three different levels of personality in human development id, ego and superego (Lefrancois, 1999).The oral stage (0-1 years). In Freuds theory, during the first year of life the psychical energy of the infant is focused on the mouth. Events surrounding the reduction of cathartic tension and attaining pleasure rela te primarily to acts of feeding, such as sucking on a nipple or bottle. (Slee, 2002, p. 161) Freud argued that infant becomes focused on the person providing gratification and reducing the level of psychic tension. According to Freud, attachment is developing between the child and the person. He argued that the amount of gratification is very important in progressing to the conterminous stage. To little or too much of gratification, would end in fixation at the oral stage. To paraphrase Freud it could as adults derive and undue amount of pleasure from mouth. Under gratification as adults may lead to depression, meanwhile, over gratification can cause adults to become excessively dependent upon others (Slee, 2002). During this stage the infants personality mainly consists if id. The infant is driven by an urge to seek immediate satisfaction of impulses. He or she does not know what is possible or impossible, has no moxie of humankind and conscience (Lefrancois, 1999).Many developm entalists fault Freud for proposing a theory without hardly any evidence to support it. His theory is difficult to test as it requires study unconscious motivations and unseen id, ego and superego (Sigelman, 1999). On the other hand, his theories helped to alert parents and those running(a) with children about the importance of the first years of life and rich worked up life. It helped Erikson and Bowlby to build on Freuds idea about the significance of the infancy for encourage development (Slee, 2002) According to Kegan, it is used in clinics and hospital by mental health practitioners (Lefrancois, 1999).Psychosocial approach. Erikson was inspired by Freuds psychoanalytical theories. But there are major differences between Freud and Erikson. Erikson shrinkd on the importance of social environment meanwhile, Freud emphasized the importance of sexuality and psychodynamic conflicts. Opposite to Freud, Erikson was concerned with the healthy personality (Lefrancois, 1999).According to Erikson there are 8 human development stages (Lefrancois, 1999). Erikson like Freud believed that every stage had crucial issue, which had to be dealt with before moving to the next stage (Slee, 2002).Basic arrogance versus (0-1 years). According to Erikson, during this stage the main issue is the development of a sense of trust. The development of a sense of trust depends on the quality of care rather than quantity the infant receives (Slee, 2002). The infant is initially faced with a conflict between mistrust of a world about which little is known and an inclination to develop a trusting attitude toward that world hence mistrust. (Lefrancois, 1999, p. 35) At this point a primary caregiver usually mother, is the most important person. The relationship between caregiver and the infant determines the resolution of the conflict between trust and mistrust and realization that the world is predictable, safe and loving. There is a risk of the infant growing up mistrustful and an xious, if the crucial issue of the stage is not resolved (Lefrancois, 1999).Many people found Eriksons theory more pleasant than Freuds, as it emphasize the interaction of biological and social influences. At the same time, despite providing a useful description of human personality development, it placid does not explain how this development comes about (Sigelman, 1999).AttachmentAn attachment is an emotional bond in which a persons sense of security measure is bound up in the relationship. (Bee, Boyd, 2009, p. 150) The infant forms a special relationship with caregivers and experiences pleasure and security in their presence, but anxiety and distress when they are gone (Bremner, Fogel, 2007). keister Bowlby has developed the most influential theory of parent/child and other relationship attachment. His attachment theory was based on ethological and psychoanalytical theories and modern cognitive psychology (Sigelman, 1999). Bowlby argued that attachment to one or more caregivers is genetically programmed in everyone. According to Bowlby infants behave in a way to image the proximity of the caregiver. In order caregivers to respond, infants cry, cling, smile or babble. As a result of this behaviour, attachment gradually develops. This kind of behaviour is directed to a particular person, preferably to a mother, than strangers. Attachment starts to be organized some time during second six months (Slee, 2002).Bowlby divided infants development of attachment in 4 phases (Boyd, Bee, 2009)Nonfocused orienting and signalling phase (birth to 3 months). In order to suck up the attention and signal their take infants cry, smile and make eye contacts (Boyd, Bee, 2009). focalisation on one or more figures phase (3to 6 months). Infants concentrate come here signals to people with whom they spend most of the time. Meanwhile, response to unacquainted with(predicate) people becomes less common (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Secure base behaviour phase (6 to 24 months). The infants start to seek proximity by following and clinging to caregivers, especially when they are anxious, hungry or injured. This behaviour is directed to a primary caregiver and only others, if the primary caregiver is not available or not responding (Boyd, Bee, 2009).Internal model phase (24 months and beyond). Infants learn how an anticipated action might affect the bonds they share with caregivers (Boyd, Bee, 2009).To sum up, according to Bowlby attachment is a part of our evolutionary heritage. With the help of interaction of biological and environmental forces attachment develops during infancy. Later development and quality of relationship is determined by the first attachment relationship between the infant and the caregiver (Sigelman, 1999).Some theorists argue, including Piaget, that the infants relationships with peers are at least as significant as the parent/infant relationship. They argue that those relationships contribute differently to development (Sigelman, 1999).Social work with infantsWhen we talk about social work with infants, the family of the baby is a part of it. Social workers safeguard children and prevent them from suffering. It is crucial for a social worker to know the child development theories in order to undertake assessments, which includes seeing, observing, engaging, public lecture and doing various activities with the child (OLoughlin, 2008).Social worker may come in contact with the infant and his family if the infant was damaged before birth (for example foetal alcoholic drink syndrome), parents experience mental illness or misuse of alcohol or drugs. Due to issues that parents face, the infant may be harmed as the needs of the child is not met, for example not dressed properly, nappies are not changed, malnutrition, staying in a not safe environment. Due to these circumstances infants cognitive development might be delayed. Depressed mothers can interact with the child less or express anger, which may lead to insecurely ad dicted children (OLoughlin, 2008). Some parents may be too immature or preoccupied by personal problems to give their child enough affection and care. In that case the infant is not able to develop a sense of trust and later, growing autonomy (Herbert, Harper-Dorton, 2002).When working with the infant and family it is not only important to assess the infant, it is also crucial to assess parenting capacity. Parents should be able access and provide for the childs physical needs. Family is responsible for childs safety. The infant should receive secure, inactive and affectionate relationships with caregivers. They should promote childs learning and intellectual development through interaction, communication, talking and responding to the child. Parents are responsible for the infants ability to regulate his or her emotions and behaviour (OLoughlin, 2008). proofAn understanding of infant development patterns and concepts is necessary for parents and caregivers, as well as all profess ionals who may come in contact with the child. By lettered them parents can create nurturing, caring and safe environment. It is useful for social workers as well, as they can assess infant and ensure that all their needs are met. Knowing the importance of cognitive development allows caregivers to support it by encouraging exploration, thinking and leaning. By talking to children more often and instruction them regularly, caregivers can improve their language skills. Failure to acquire language skills can be indicator that there might be development difficulties or lack of language stimulation. Attachment development is crucial during infancy as well, especially with the primary caregiver, usually mother. It provides healthy emotional and social development and determines later development and quality of relationship.Even though psychoanalytical theory of personal development by Freud is highly criticized, as there is no evidence to test it, it had a major impact on theories abou t childrens socio-emotional development.

Mobile Location Techniques

peregrine posture TechniquesINTRODUCTIONWith the rapid incr eternal sleep in add of lively exploiters, a massive mo of calls originate from nimble subscribers, all over the world, e veryday. With the increasing turn of events of erratic users and originating calls, at that place is as well as an increase in urgency calls that originate from wandering(a) stakes. In more indispensability cases the property is unknown to the caller, or he quite a littlenot explain properly. and therefore there is a strong need to pose both roving user in touch situation. Hence the stage setting of fluent location is vital.Due to importance of sprightly geting, the need to decide any unsettled user in touch was in like manner called by Federal Communications military commission (FCC) and European Countries.For instance, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) made a proposal to include perspective in the 911 emergency service con steadr, which government issueed in the E911 ruling 2. Currently, all the legacy handsets utilize in public stallular profits in the USA must provide the situation of the customer whenever this sum up is dialled. The European Commission (EC) adopted a akin regulation to include location in emergency services on 112 2.The FCC in USA took the first step in this direction. Initially by 2001, the busy operators argon requisite to provide the accurate location of an emergency caller. The current requirement of FCC is to direct 67% of emergency callers must be determined within 100 meters and 95% of the callers must be situated with an demerit of no more than 300 meters. 3 ApplicationsMobile location corporation be utilize for a number of services by wandering(a) operators. several(prenominal) of them argon discussed hereAn important application of fluid location is to provide emergency services. By subtle the location of a erratic user, emergency vehicle tramp be directed to that location. Henc e there is an increase in public safety and services.An early(a) interest in exploiting the mobile location is to apply location beautiful billing. By knowing the location of mobile subscribers an operator merchantman offer competitive tariff e.g. users eject be offered more calls from their mobile to home or maculation. asset tracking and hap management is another application of mobile location. exploitation the location of mobile travellers mint be in doed about location. Mobile location puke be utilize to effectively manage fleet and traffic conditions.There ar deuce main categories for mobile state of affairsing,Handset found typeseting and ent go offtment ground office. Handset Based techniques needs circumscribed type of handset hardw be or the installation of specialized ent careenment software in existing handsets e.g. GPS and A-GPS. GPS receiver determines its own agency by sending and receiving tokens from at least four satellites. The clock to r to from individually one one satellite mark to GPS receiver is used as a parameter. The accuracy of GPS keisterd systems is very high. And the insurance coverage of satellite is very redeeming(prenominal) in open-air(prenominal) environment. However, drawback is inability of GPS to operate in indoor and heavily populated urban environment. GPS privations pose where quests of the satellite cannot be fully covered. well-nigh other problem is link up to existing handsets in market. A large number of existing handsets lack the built in GPS receivers. hencece utilise this rule a immense number of people can not get benefit or can not be patch upd in case of emergency. to a fault Embedding a GPS receiver into mobile devices leads to increased cost, size, and battery consumption 1. frankincense hundreds of millions of handsets in market need to be put backd or modified.In contrast, lucre Based Techniques determine the position of a mobile user by measuring its quest parameters when stock at the net Base come in (BS). Here BS receives signal from Mobile Station (MS) and sends them to a underlying site where location estimation algorithmic rules are used to estimate location. In this manner acting there is no need to change or replace existing handsets. It would require change in a few thousands of vane nodes (Base Stations) than to change hundred of thousands of mobile targets. Hence, it can be implemented easily, less(prenominal) costly use existing technology. And politic can provide a very considerably estimate of position of a mobile user. The hereafter technologies also support lucre udderd positioning. Infact many positioning techniques can not be implemented development existing GSM technology. Using mod technologies their efficiency provide keenly increase. The Network bowd positioning is also feasible for network operators as it would help them to implement location sensitive billing and location related services. t herefrom themed on a received location the operator can implement a special price plan e.g. less price calls to home or office number. It result also help them to generate more revenue.Another receipts of network habitationd techniques is the security department of the subscribers. Using an algorithm at network side also ensures that the position of subscriber is known that to emergency service or mobile operator. Thus it also increases the safety and security of the subscribers.The network dishd techniques take a crap several advantages like low cost, ease of implementation, implementation apply existing technologies and methods, beneficial for a large number of people. However, the main issue with this technique is its accuracy. Despite a number of efforts to recoil error and increase accuracy there is still no artless estimation method pre displace. All of the methods expose fair results under certain conditions or circumstances. Thus there is no general prediction for result using an algorithm. The main problems in incorrect positioning are multi driveway propagation, weaken and low SNR. The efforts are continuously being made to minimize these and thencece increase accuracy and thus finishance.The project bequeathinging emphasize on comparing various existing network rootd location techniques. Some of the common techniques will be analyze in detail. Base on these existing methods, a number of positioning algorithms are also canvas in detail to implement major positioning techniques. The algorithms will then be implemented using MATLAB. The results of algorithms will be compared to actual position of mobile place so as to measure the performance of from each one of them. Final thing is to develop an on crease benchmarking tool to compare location evaluation estimates using different techniques. The tool should be able to plump user uploaded measurements in to its own algorithms. The results will then be compared to user submitted results to perform a benchmark.Existing Literature ReviewA number of mobile location techniques are common nowadays. These techniques can be divided into thirdsome main typesMobile Based TechniquesNetwork Based TechniquesIndirect TechniquesThese techniques are briefly explained belowMobile Based TechniquesIn this method, a number of geographically separated transmitters are used by the mobile send off to exploit its own position. It is also known as Self put. Thus mobile come out (MS) locates itself by using signals from a number of transmitters or subject move (BS). Example of mobile based positioning is GPS and A-GPS. In GPS based positioning GPS receiver uses signals from geographically distri onlyed satellites to exploit its own position.Network Based TechniquesThis method uses a number of transmitters in a network to locate position of an unknown receiver. It uses resources of the network only. The signals from the MS are used by a number of BS to locate the MS. This te chnique can be implemented using different type of parameters e.g. carrell spheric identity element (CGI), cell Global Identity with Timing Advance (CGI-TA), compound Cell Global Identity (E-CGI), Time of comer (TOA), move of reach (AOA), Time diversion of Arrival (TDOA).Indirect TechniquesIn this technique mobile or network can be assisted to locate a mobile target. Thus base grade can send positioning data to mobile commit to locate itself. Similarly measurements can be uploaded from MS to BS to locate mobile station. It involves measurements sent from MS to BS for positioning at BS or vice versa.There are a number of network based mobile positioning techniques in use today. In much(prenominal) techniques a number of involved base stations (BS) use signal from mobile station (MS) to locate the position of MS. The common methods are Signal Strength, Time of Arrival, Time Difference of Arrival, burden of Arrival, or hybrid techniques. severally of the existing method has its own advantages and disadvantages. A major problem with all methods is the accuracy. It depends on cell size, cell environment, number of cells, multipath propagations and exceed surrounded by MS and serving base station. Some other common parameters for performance measurement include applicability, robustness, etc.The existing methods have been described in detail belowCell Global Identity The CGI method to locate a mobile user is most light-colored and straight forward. In this method, the position of mobile user is estimated by using the cell identity of serving base station. Thus the mobile can be located anyplace in a call coverage demesne. It is very simple to implement.However, the positioning error whitethorn range from a few meters to a few kilometres. The accuracy will be parasitical on the size of serving base station. Another problem with this method is that mobile station is not always connected to nearest base station. In this case the location of mobile c annot be even estimated. superlative degreeen-CGITo thrash errors in basic CGI technique another method is used. The basic judgement was to split the coverage area of a base station into two or more areas, mostly troika 120 degree areas. Each area within a base station can then be issued with a separate identity. Hence in this way the position of mobile can be narrow down to a puny area. Although this method is lucky to implement yet error is large rich from practical point of view.CGI with Timing AdvanceThe CGI technique can also be meliorate by using the fourth dimension advance gasconade of GSM. Timing advance is a value that corresponds to the time it takes for a signal to reach from MS to BS. In GSM quantify advance is a quality used by the base station to synchronise with mobile station. On step timing advance is equal to a change in 1100 m of round-trip time (the time signal takes to reach from base station to mobile and then back to base station). The timing adv ance is delegate by base station for each mobile station. Using the timing advance feature a mobile user can be located within 550 meters approximately.Time of ArrivalAlthough CGI method provides a upright estimation of mobile position, the error is still large enough from emergency view point. Another method to locate mobile is using the reach time of signals at base stations involved. The distance of mobile can be estimated by using breeding about time of arriver i.e.D = t / cWhere t is the time of reaching of signal at base station and c is the fixedness of light. The distance will be the estimated mobile position. However the mobile can be located anywhere on circular path centred at base station and radius equal to estimated distance D. The exact position of mobile can be estimated by using same type of measurements from two other neighbouring base stations. Ideally the positioning circles from all the terce base stations must intersect at a point, which will be the posi tion of mobile. However, practically, the circles dont intersect at a hotshot point rather they fasten a small area in which the mobile is potentially located. This method is really better than CGI because it fuddles more accurate results. The time of reaching method requires accurate synchronization or adduce between mobile and base station to correctly measure the reaching time. The results, however, depends on environment of cell clutter, atmospheric conditions, and multipath propagation. In worst atmospheric conditions the results whitethorn vary severely.Angle of ArrivalIn this method the position of the mobile is located by using the direction of signal arriving from mobile station to the serving and, at least one other base station. The direction or angle of arrival is measured at base station by using arrays of transmitting aerials. Angle measurement at one base station will give the position of mobile to be located at a straight line at a certain angle with base sta tion. Measurement from another involved base station will produce another positioning line. Ideally the mobile must be located at the intersection of two lines from involved base stations. In practice, however, they may not intersect at all at a single point. The angle of arrival is good because it can be implemented using a small number of base stations. Thus it is best when the number of base stations visible to mobile is very low. The angle of arrival method is very sensitive to measurement errors of angle. So a very small error in angle measurement results in a much larger error in position of mobile.Time Difference of Arrival The time of arrival method requires a strict synchronism or reference between mobile and base station. To overcome this problem, the passing of arrival time at a distich of base station is used for measurements. A pair of base stations is used to nature one time rest measurement. The result will be a circle on which mobile can be anywhere. Ideally th e three circles will intersect at one point. This point will be the position of mobile. In actual practice the method will give a small area in which mobile must be located. The difference of arrival time eliminates the need of synchronisation as required by time of arrival. This method can be used as to run entirely on network side or to run with mobile assistance. The performance of time difference method is greatly improved than time of arrival. The main advantage of this method is elimination of timing requirement. However, on the other hand, the number of involved base station must be at least four including primary base station. Thus only then three sets of measurements can be obtained. The time difference of arrival method is more often used payable to ease of implementation. entropy correlational statistics methodThe Database coefficient of correlation Method makes use of the signal information seen by mobile station. The signal information from all of the coverage area seen by mobile station is stored in a database at network side. The signal information may include signal strength, signal timing, signal delay etc. When position of the mobile is required, the stored data in database is used by a positioning emcee to do so. The signal measurements sent to the database depends on the environment. The resolution of such measurements must be set so as to achieve certain accuracy. In GSM a sub-band resolution is used by the Base Station Controller (BSC) to facilitate the handover process.Pilot correlativity Method algorithmic rules SearchThere are a number of positioning algorithms in present belles-lettres. These algorithms make use of the measurements make by the mobile station. The measurements required for each algorithm may vary. However, some common measurements may include Cell ID, LAC, Signal Strength, Timing Advance, Time of Arrival, and Direction (Angle) of Arrival. excessively these measurements may be carried out only on network side i .e., by primary base station or they can be performed with assistance of mobile station. The algorithms for all of the major positioning methods are studied in detail. Although there is a large number of algorithms in literature yet each of them has own advantages and disadvantages. Each algorithm is based on some assumptions and limitations. For this reason we can not say which one is best. solely the one which gives acceptable accuracy is thought to be the good one.Cell Global Identity (CGI)The Cell ID is the very basic method to locate mobile station. It is used to make a rough estimate of mobile position. With this method the mobile can be located anywhere within a cell. Thus the accuracy is very poor. The mobile station measures periodically the id of serving base station and up to 6 neighbouring base station. Thus no special algorithm is needed to locate Cell ID. By looking at mobile measurements the Cell ID can be located.Enhanced Cell IDDue to very poor accuracy of basic Cel l ID, a number of enhancements have been made to it. Thus measurements like signal strength, Timing Advance can be used in pairing with Cell ID to improve accuracy. Two algorithms which show good results are enhancement to CGI using Signal Strength and set using Timing Advance. In the first algorithm the signal strength is taken as a parameter. The power received by mobile station from primary base station and up to six neighbouring cells is feedback to primary base station. The primary base station thus knows the power transmitted by it and power received by mobile station. Then the distance calculation is possible by using the known path loss. Using Okumura-Hata Path Loss mildew 4 the distance between mobile and base station is calculated.The mathematical form of this model is 4Urban areas LdB = A + B log10 R Esuburban areas LdB = A + B log10 R COpen areas LdB = A + B log10 R DA = 69.55 + 26.16 log10 fc 13.82 log10 hbB = 44.9 6.55 log10 hbC = 2 (log10 (fc / 28))2 + 5.4D = 4.78 ( log10 fc )2 + 18.33 log10 fc + 40.94E = 3.2 ( log10 ( 11.7554 hm ))2 4.97 for large cities, fc = 300MHzE = 8.29 ( log10 ( 1.54 hm ))2 1.1 for large cities, fc E = ( 1.1 log10 fc 0.7 ) hm ( 1.56 log10 fc 0.8 ) for medium to small citiesDefinition of parametershm mobile station approach teetotum above local terrain height mdm distance between the mobile and the buildingh0 typically height of a building above local terrain height mlhbbase station antenna height above local terrain height mrgreat circle distance between base station and mobile mR=r x 10-3 great circle distance between base station and mobile kmf carrier frequency Hzfc=f x 10-6 carrier frequency MHz? forgo space wavelength mThis model is fairly simple so it is used for a large number of situations. The distance calculation is easy from this model using known path loss in pre-defined environment. The mobile will be located anywhere on the circle of estimated distance with centre at base station. A minimum of three base stations are used for such measurements. Ideally the three circles will intersect at a single point. This point will be the position of mobile station. The triangulation technique is used to find the intersection coordinates of circles.Time of ArrivalAlthough CGI provides the position of mobile station yet the accuracy is not sufficient for many purposes. To improve accuracy the time of arrival method is used. It gives good results than CGI in most of the situations. A number of algorithms describing time of arrival method are in literature. Each of them has some advantages and some short comings. Also each algorithm works best under some specific conditions e.g. in line of sight (LOS) or non-line of sight (NLOS) conditions. A good algorithm which gives acceptable results in many situations is A constrain Least Squares come on to Mobile Positioning Algorithms and Optimality. This algorithm uses a least square come on to estimate position of mobile station. The dista nce between mobile station and base station is estimated by using the fact that signals travel in free space at a speed equal to speed of light. Thus mathematically,Di =Ti / c i = 1, 2 NWhere D is the estimated distance, T is the TOA measurement, i denote the number of base station and c is the speed of light. The mobile station will be located anywhere on the circle with radius D centered at base station i. Same TOA measurements are performed by at least three base stations. The position of mobile will be the intersection of three circles. Ideally this will be a single point. But in practice, due to multipath propagation and weaken, it will give a small area. The mobile station will be located in this area. To reduce positioning error the algorithm uses a least square error approach. Thus the distance between every point in that area and each mobile station is calculated. The point where the sum of squares of distances is minimized will be the estimated position of mobile station. To get TOA measurements, base station and mobile station must be synchronized properly or there must be a reference point. Thus a strict timing requirement is necessary.Angle of Arrival In LOS conditions this method is the best to use. A number of algorithms describing this method are in literature. All of these algorithms require a dominant LOS path to correctly perform angle of arrival measurements at base station. Thus this method is best in open areas and suburban areas. In dense urban environment this technique produces severe errors due to NLOS and multipath propagation. A number of algorithms are studied in detail. A good algorithm is A Constrained Least Squares Approach to Mobile Positioning Algorithms and Optimality. It produces results with acceptable accuracy. According to this algorithm, to perform angle of arrival measurements, base station must be provided with multiple antenna arrays. A minimum of two base stations will be required to perform such measurements. The s ignal from mobile station will reach base station at a certain angle with level axis. This angle can be measured by base station using antenna arrays. Mathematically, it is given over bytan (fi) =(y yi / x xi) , i = 1, 2, . . . , M.The angle of arrival measurement from one base station will result in a straight line. This line is also called Line of Bearing (LOB). It will be at a certain angle between horizontal axis and base station. The mobile will be located any where on the LOB. A similar measurement will be done using another involved base station. It will result in producing another angle of arrival or LOB. The point where the two line of bearing intersects will be the position of mobile station.Ideally two lines will intersect at a unique point. However, practically they may not intersect at a point. In this situation the angle of arrival method need further measurements from other involved base station.This method produces very accurate results in LOS situation. However, the results depend critically on the measured angle. Thus a very small error in angle measurement may lead to positioning error of hundreds of meters. Another disadvantage is the cost of this method. It requires antenna arrays at each base station to measure AOA. Hence cost of implementation increases.Time Difference of Arrival The time difference of arrival uses the difference in arrival generation of signals at a pair of base stations. The time difference of arrival measurements are done with reference to primary base station. A good algorithm in literature is the Performance analogy of TOA and TDOA Based hole Estimation Algorithms in LOS Environment. It explains the working of different types of TDOA approach. It also compares the performance of each of the type.However it uses a LOS approach. In open areas LOS assumption is valid but in heavily populated urban areas this assumption is invalid. Another good algorithm which explains the TDOA measurements is is A Constrained Le ast Squares Approach to Mobile Positioning Algorithms and Optimality . In this algorithm, the primary (Serving) base station is the reference base station. The time of arrival measurements are performed using the reference base station. Thus the estimated distance between mobile station and reference base station is d1 and that of mobile station and a neighbouring base station is di. Thus the TDOA measurements are given by,d1 = t1 / cdi = ti / c, i = 2,3 .. NWhere d1 is the distance between mobile station and reference (primary) base station and di are the distances between mobile station and other three neighbouring base stations. The TDOA measurement between reference and second base station is given byTDOA= d1-di i = 2,3, .NThis will be the error free TDOA measurement at a pair of base stations. The measurement including error is given byTDOA= (d1 di) + errorThe error is modelled as a Gaussian distributed random variable with zero-mean. Such measurements are taken from at least three pairs of base stations. The triangulation technique is then employed to get the position of mobile station. The TDOA method is superior to time of arrival (TOA) in sense that it eliminates the need for timing reference. Thus it is easy to implement. Due to no timing requirement TDOA method is more frequently used than TOA method.Database correlation methodDespite of a number of algorithm which perform fairly well in urban areas there is still a need to further improve it. Due to severe multipath and fading effects LOS assumption is not valid in urban areas. The Database correlativity Method is a good method to counter effect multi path and fading. It can be implemented by utilizing the measurements performed in existing GSM systems. It can be implemented by making Signal Strength as a parameter. A ggod algorithm to implement Database Correlation Method is Database Correlation Method for GSM Location by Heikki Laitinen, Jaakko Lahteenmaki, Tero Nordstrom. In this algorithm the DCM is implemented by using signal strength measurements performed by handset. The algorithm explains the way database correlation method can be implemented in GSM. The measurements performed in the coverage area are performed by mobile station and are stored in database. Thus the database will consists pre-measured samples of signal measurements in the coverage location. When the need to locate mobile station arises, the primary base station asks mobile station to perform signal strength measurements and feedback to it. The BS sends these measurements to location server. The location server then calculates the difference between stored fingerprint and actual measurement. The point where the difference between fingerprint and actual measurement is minimum will be the estimated position of mobile station. The estimated position will also contain some error in it due to fading, NLOS path and multipath propagation. However this error will be drastically less than the error in other te chniques apply under same conditions.The database correlation method has the advantage that it can be implemented in any type of system like GSM, CDMA,UMTS,etc.ReferencesNetwork-Based radiocommunication Location IEEE betoken PROCESSING MAGAZINE JULY 2005A New Time-Based Algorithm for Positioning Mobile Terminals in Wireless NetworksIsrael Martin-Escalona and Francisco Barcelo-Arroyo, EURASIP Journal on Advances in Signal ProcessingMobile Positioning Using Wireless NetworksIEEE SIGNAL PROCESSING MAGAZINE JULY 2005Path loss models S-72.333 Physical layer methods in wireless communication systems Sylvain Ranvier / Radio Laboratory / TKK 23 November 2004Performance Comparison of TOA and TDOA Based Location Estimation Algorithms in LOS Environment Guowei Shen, Rudolf Zetik, and Reiner S. ThomaA Constrained Least Squares Approach to Mobile Positioning Algorithms and Optimality K.W. Cheung,1 H. C. So,1 W.-K.Ma,2 and Y. T. Chan3Database Correlation Method for GSM Location Heikki Laitinen , Jaakko Lahteenmaki, Tero Nordstrom

The World Wide Interconnectedness Today Education Essay

The World Wide Interconnectedness Today Education tryThe notion of world(prenominal)ization and citizenship be the two beas that always been debated long clock ago. If we look at the result itself, it is not new and both argon the concepts that always compete each another(prenominal)wise as it involve the among other things arguments about politics, identity, rights, equality, inequality and so on. However, the term orbiculateisation was first use in 1960s which based on the nous of bringing the homo together. In other words, it means every person in the initiation is the citizen of the world, who has the status and rights of citizens notwithstanding on a orbicular context rather than city or soil state basis. In reality, globularisation has took bit long time ago in particular in the term of dialogue which we to the highest degreetimes fail to debate them as a physique of proposaletaryisation for instances inter topic time z wholenesss, befoolion of Greg orian calendar, adoption of s even up years a week and inter study telegraphic and sign solelying codes. However, the idea of world(a)isation scratchinged to hiking and much and more debated in the latter part of the twentieth century, when the citizens are urged to find globally and to crook locally. It is the mindset that generates globalization as something new and dominant. It is as easily as inevit sufficient process of development by individual benignant which emphasises on the free of individual choice. in that respect are a lot of definitions and show up of suasions on globalization. Giddens (1990, p.64) describes globalisation as the intensification of worldwide social congenerics which cerebrate unlike localities in such(prenominal) a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring gentlemany miles away and vice versa. This means that what shapes the locals straight off may be influenced by the occurring events from different part of the world, resulted from the event of globalisation. In this day and age, the breeding is very easy to spread. If we look arse 20 to 30 years ago, this might be so impossible but with the help of teaching technology and internet, the world is make up ones mindmed as world at our fingertips. I quite agree with how Giddens defines the term globalisation. In my point of view based on what Giddens statements, globalisation is things that change our everyday life which we tooshienot see be try it is a hidden process which the effects more or lessly poop get on out in long term. However, I conceptualize that it is inevitable, corporation view us positively as well as prejudicially. Refer back to the definition that Giddens come out, positively, light and to a lower place actual countries has started to open their eyes and late they sens see how outside world looks like. Rich and substantial countries start to see how the unlucky sides of the world and help them to lighten their bu rden for type in Africa and Palestine. This is good as what shapes humanitys social relations with others can be the situation that happens miles away from them.Globalisation has significant disturbs on pedagogyal policies, structures and practices in countries around the world, though these deem been differentially experienced. The driving forces of these changes in upbringing support been sparing, political, technological as well as cultural. nonpareil of the obvious changes is the global citizenship preparation which lots of countries in the world adopt this in their fosterage policies and practices. In England, Citizenship Education became part of the English base schools National Curriculum in September 2000. It is then introduced across the computer broadcast in secondary schools from September 2002 and provide include a global dimension (QCA, 2000). The key concepts of global citizenship are said to include the idea of sustainable development, social justice and the concept of interdependence enhanced by globalisation. It also involves of sympathiseing conflict and conflict resolution, human rights as well as responsibilities (Globalisation and Citizenship edu. Jack demaine). There are lots of critiques on global citizenship precept as a new reform of rearing. However, many beliefs that home(a) citizenship is now being weakened and a new reform of education are necessary to cope with the develop world nowadays. Global citizenship education is said to be concerned with specific issues and underlying value and attitudes. It urged peck to think and use their brain by questioning and exploring their own and others values at bottom community and different parts of the world. It back ups spate to think and act globally, making them to see themselves as growing up in the global context, no more thinking tho in their society and nation state. In fact, there is emphasises on the global dimension to the food they eat, the turn they wear, o ther pupils from different parts of the world in their schools and community (Brownie, 2001).Basically, global citizenship curriculum is designed to develop students familiarity and understanding globally. During the participation, their skill of interrogatory and communication will be developed and responsible action detach prior to their age will be involved. The requirements are to be met in a variety of ways across the curriculum and also will be embedded in teaching methodology and school ethos (Jack Demaine). Skills, endureledge and understanding of the key concepts of global citizenship education can be developed across the secondary curriculum in many subjects areas such as PSHE and citizenship session. In subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, and English, the knowledge and understanding can be developed finished the topics, methodology, activities as well as relation to the appropriate concepts. For example given by Demaine (2002), in English, students may contr ast the reporting of a world issues in different newspapers, and on the Internet, and critically assess the reports for bias and varying points of view. While in Mathematics, concepts such as mean, mode and median can be used to investigate bonnie wages around the world. World trade, the idea of fair trade as well as the impact of global relations on the lives of individuals along a trade route can be lookd in subject Geography. In addition Walkington (1999) demonstrates how geography and global citizenship education both be possessed of complimentary aims and provides detailed accounts of classroom strategies which have been used by the teachers that have successfully taught global citizenship with subject Geography. She then agrees that students can hear appropriate usable knowledge, skills and understandings through the enquiry-based, participatory approaches to citizenship education.Gilbert (1996) argues that students appear to be well disposed to discussion around the que stion of the environment. In global citizenship education module, particular emphasises is given to United Nations Agenda 21, an environmental plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the UN and national government activitys. Students can develop awareness on the global issues and deeply understand the concepts. Sustainable development, one of the well-known issues change magnitudely debate globally is one of the key topics discussed in global citizenship education. Students can be encouraged to explore the local action in response to global issues by canvass local plans and priorities for sustainable development. In this module, they can learn and understand the ideas of sustainable development work and their effect on different aspects of local and national government planning and policy finale. Teachers are encouraged to collaborate in order to help students to learn how citizens can contribute to local decision that will influence their environment and lifes quality. Additionally, the concept of global citizenship education has been cogitate with the offer of helping humanity. Students are increasingly aware about the human rights, social justice and global issues such as war and peace. nearly secondary schools in certain countries like England have already developed their global citizenship curriculum by suitable involved in long-term projects and school-linking particularly in the EU (Demaine, 2002). They have developed strong citizenship elements within their school ethos, policies and curriculum. Some schools also encourage their students to take part in decision-making on anti-bullying and anti-racism policy. However, there are questions to be answered about the possible intensity level of school-based citizenship education programme. The effectiveness depends on the teacher and the students, as well as school institutions itself. It is essential to motivate teachers that teach the programme by providing exuberant professional training and excellent satisfyings for the teaching. For the students, the lesson should be integrated with fun and conformationle activity whilst the aims of the teaching still can be achieved at the end. looking for at the differences in developed and underdeveloped countries, global citizenship education takes step forward mostly in school in develop countries. This education programme still seems strange in underdeveloped countries, making that it only benefits by the rich people in rich countries. race in poor countries still left shag and in my point of view, this idea of global citizenship education only cater certain kind of people, leaving behind the basic intention of globalisation, that is bringing the people around the world together.In my point of view, global citizenship education is a good approach to increasingly interconnected world we live right now. Globalisation is an issue that does sincerely exist and despite the fact that I awar e that I cargo hold the view of negative things about it, it may come with positive things too. In fact, I really support the implementation of global citizenship education in most countries as it opens up students mind on the global issues, encourage them to address global issues such environmental and war, as well as preparing themselves for global challenges of the future.Long time ago, education is believed to be concerned generally in producing people with knowledge and skill and their well-being. Education can only buckle underable by high class and high status people. posterior then, as political systems and boundaries and demarcation lines differentiating one country from the other were identified, it can be clearly seen that there was governments involvement in education through the establishment of the public schools. The reason for such an involvement seen by the government was to have a good grip of its citizens. Having held on its citizens, the government was able t o have a common ideology inculcated and transferred to its citizens. The same concepts have been utilize to the implementation global citizenship education, but in different perspective obviously. The idea and concept of globalisation is delivered and transferred to the people across the world through education. It was purpose as the means to enhance the individuals cohesiveness with others globally. Such an effort is evaluate to bring unity among citizens across the world, for having a common goal in the hearts and minds of its citizens.Looking at how globalisation is so powerful in influencing people in motley types of field such as economic and political, it also has its strength in affecting the education across the world. wholeness of the obvious effects of globalisation is the emergence of technology-mediated acquirement which has revolutionised the teaching and learning process. In the era of information technology, explosion of knowledge and information helps the globa lisation in term of education. The invention of computers, internet and technology-mediated learning such as through the use of CD, webpage and so on helps in the spreading of information and knowledge to millions around the world. Compare to 10 to 20 years ago, it is knotty to main course knowledge and information from outsides, and more dependable on special books and journals available in local libraries. Nowadays, through online and digital libraries, people especially inquiryers and educationalist can get access to information and knowledge from books and research works done in the other parts of the world without having the pauperisation to travel to the required places. This certainly important as it string the access to education easier and save so much time to do the work. In addition, through the use of the internet, distant learning is now possible and accessible. People especially students can access knowledge twenty-four hours in a day and learn anytime they want t o, without having to attend the lectures in the lecture halls. In fact, in completing this course work, I do not have to travel around the world to see how the process of globalisation takes place. search information from online journal articles and books internet has already helped me a lot to make progress in this work.Naturally, any invention and development has its positive and negative sides. Although this scientific and innovative way of learning has made people lives a lot easier and intermit by acquire access to knowledge and information fast and efficient, we still can see the downsides of this situation. People have becoming more isolated from the world they use to share with others. They made people learn in a more personalised way in which the effect can be seen through the cut off interaction with the community and society around them. In fact, it drives them more towards achieving success and material gains for the benefit of individual rather than for society. Fro mm (1995) has predicted this effect of the globalisation on human individuals a long time ago and he states thatModern man is alienated from himself, from his fellow men, and from nature. He has been transformed into a commodity, experiences his life forces as an investment which must bring him the maximum profit obtainable under existing market conditions. (Fromm, 1995, p. 67)From the quotes, it is obviously similar to what happen nowadays. People believe that they have developed educationally and economically, and feel confidence that they are being modern enough. They slowly isolate themselves from their society and surroundings. Anything they have done cerebrate and aimed more on gaining maximum profit for them. Another aspect that is abstracted in the personalised form of learning is the interaction with the teacher and lecturer. face-to-face interaction during teaching and learning between teacher and students is significant to the students. This is because they can get acq uainted with the teacher by physically being present in front of him. In addition, information and knowledge can be more meaningful when they are properly explained by the teacher. Unlike online and distant teaching programme, even though it is easier in terms of accessibility, certain kind of things such as understanding of the knowledge may be effortful to obtain. This might be because of lack of tangible communication where body language, character of voice, personality, and emotion are absent in virtual learning.Moving along the process of globalisation, education is seen as a tool of human uppercase development. Economists view education as both consumer and working capital good because it offers public utility company to a consumer and also serves as an input into the production of other goods and services. mankind capital theory emphasises how education increases the productivity and efficiency of the workers by increasing the level of cognitive stock of economically prod uctive human cleverness which is a product of innate abilities and investment in human beings. The preparation of formal education is seen as a productive investment in human capital, which the proponents of the theory have considered as equally or even more equally worthwhile than that of physical capital (Olaniyan and Okemakinde, 2008, p. 158). One of the most obvious examples of the application of human capital theory is that there are increasing admits of private education and other factors determining individual demand for education. Many of the developing nations have realised that the principal mechanism for developing human knowledge is the education system. Therefore, they invest huge sum of gold on education not only as attempt to impact knowledge and skills to individuals but also to impart values, ideas, attitudes and aspirations which may be in the nations best developmental interest. Consequently, most countries have put high budgets on education including for devel opment and split up quality of education. Many private and world-wide schools are built and they are believed to provide better quality of education rather than standard type of school. Parents that can afford to send their children to such schools choose private and international schools for their children to receive better education, thus providing them with better future and good jobs with higher wages. It is also worth noting that the causal descent between education and earnings has important implications for public policy. If human capital theorists are correct in arguing that the education is the primary cause of higher earnings, then it obviously make sense to provide better quality of education to low-income groups of society to reduce poverty and the degree of income quality.The following effect of globalisation on education can be seen through the commodity of education especially in higher education. Nowadays, the increasingly commonplace trend in education is the g lobal trade of higher education in which receives lots of demand across the world. Higher education is seen as a medium for making money for certain organisation. More pricy education is introduced such as private university and international school. It is true that some cases, they provide better quality for learning but the price to be paid is too much. Those comes from rich family can afford the education but what will happen for the middle and low class family who could not afford it? Globalisation emphasises the idea of bringing people together, making the status all people the same but the reality is because of competition among individual people, education is the thing that you have to pay in order to get it. The more money you willing to pay, the higher the quality of education you will get, that what most of people nowadays believe in. Same goes to the schooling trend which is getting popular now, that is international school. The same concept as the concept of globalisati on applies to international school which is bringing the people together across the world. It globalised in terms of content learning and students inside. Students share different cultures and values, but seldom we can see they share the same class and social status. ordinarily students come from high class and social status as we know the fees to enter this type of school is far too high. The curriculum normally uses International Baccalaureate which is claimed as a prestigious qualification. Here, we can see the proof of inequality of education being rise. It is obvious for most of the cases, education is seen as commodity, a tool for making money, rather than for public good.There are competition to get into schools where the education is considered to be worth the students or their parents money. Moore (2000) argues that investing in education is same like investing in the stock market. People have to wait long enough for the outcomes. virtually of us have a mindset that we ca n get a better job with high income of we attend better schools. In other words, a certified level of education is a commodity, means that it is useful and can be turned into commercial advantage.Increasing in outcome-oriented form of education.Knowledge for its own sake seems to have lost its currency in a world where outcomes have become the goal of tertiary education. (Mondon, 2010)Babalola (2003, cited in Olaniyan and Okemakinde, 2008 2) states that the contribution of education to economic growth and development occurs through its tycoon to increase productivity of an existing labour force in various ways.In Malaysia for example, the Malaysian government has made many efforts to make Malaysia as a centre of education excellence in the region and to allow for the industry with the relevant human resources.

Gain and Noise Boundaries for NFmin or Unity SWRout

Gain and no.se Boundaries for NFmin or concurrence SWRoutFullCharacterizationofGainand zero(prenominal)seBoundariesforNFmin or ace SWRout carrying outM. R. M. Rizk1,4, Ehab Abou-Bakr*,2, A. A. A. Nasser3, El-Sayed A. El-Badawy1 and Amr M. Mahros1,5Abstract-For a receiver sub-block, Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is the first stage after the receiving antenna and as a key wrench, its amplification and make noise send off (NF) affects the whole performance of the receiving part. In this paper we present a adept pictorial visualization in terms of name, standing wave balance (SWR) and noise for a GaAs HJ-FET electronic transistor in twain direct cases i)NFmin, ii) Unity SWRout. The set of curves and contours presented volition provide the useer with enough visual info about the transistor operating boundaries and will also visually countenance on choosing the appropriate coordinated points for a wideband deed agree to the desired (GT,SWR) for case (i) and (GT,SWRin,NF) for case (ii). Numerical recitations argon disposed for for each one operating case and verified via a microwave circuit externalize softwargon package to demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed interpretical techniques. The resolvings from dissemblings compargon favorably with the visually estimated determine.INTRODUCTIONIntroducing a wide-band LNA with acceptable noise variant and pile up depends mainly on choosing a suitable transistor1, 2, 3, 4. Several successful techniques dedicate been developed in the literature to develop discrete transistors with super economic crisis NF and high associated gain 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Different challenging techniques have been use to at the aforesaid(prenominal) time get high gain, low noise figure, good input and railroad siding co-ordinated and un go overal stability at the lowest accomplishable stream draw from the amplifier. In 1982, Yarman et al.12 introduced a software based non-linear pick outimization regularity bas ed on their procedural simplified real relative absolute frequency technique. This contrive procedure is applicable to broadband multistage FET amplifiers with no decisions to be make in advance. It was more efficient and accurate than other available heel modes to fulfill the most optimum gain and SWR over a predefined bandwidth. This method was later widen by Perennec et al.13 to optimize the noise figure in parallel with the gain and mismatch. Capponi et al. 14, expressed the performance of LNA in input twin(a) condition by analyzing the Combined noise-SWR using the general curve family condition for a given active device. The determination of the required input/ issue terminations of the active device was explained in 15 when the power gain, noise figure, and input and product mismatch constraints are placed on the amplifier. Bengtsson et al. 16 devised a novel SWR mental test procedure for GaN-HEMT devices. In 17, the operation conditions of a selected high technology transistor were used on the typical human body configurations to find a compromise relations amidst the gain, noise figure for the output port matching. Recentely graphical methods along with optimization methods for describing the full capacity of the selected transducer under a given set of noise figure and SWR constrains are discussed in 18, 19, 20.Received visualize* Corresponding author Ehab Abou-Bakr (emailprotected). force of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.The Higher Institute of Engineering and Technology, El-Behera, Egypt.Faculty of Engineering, Arab Academy For Science Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria, Egypt.SmartCI, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21432, Saudi Arabia.The (noise, gain, SWR) triplets tolerate be expressed on the Smithchart as circles on both the source and pervert reflection coefficient planes 21, 22. Choosing matching points on the Smithchart based on the variations of gain ci rcles radii reflects on the noise/SWR performance of the whole amplifier circuit. Pre-Knowledge of the transistors full capacity with respect to gain, SWR and noise could facilitate the choice of the correct part for the targeted design goals.In this paper, two cases of design restrictions are taken into consideration i) NFoperation, ii) harmony SWRout. For each of these cases, a formed data base is used to create sets of boundaries for the transducer gain GT and NF that will reveal the full operating capacity o the selected transistor. Visual filling of the desired performance is possible and parentage of the appropriate matching points for single frequency or wideband operation is made simple.The selected active device for our investigation is the GaAs HJ-FET transistor NE3210S01 from Renessa Electronics 24. The transistor is potentially unstable at VDS= 2V, ID= 10mAin the frequency rage below 8.6 gigahertz 26, 27. So, by conducting the investigation in a bleed above this fre quency (9-12) gigacycle per second, no additional circuit atom is required to drive the transistor to its conditional stability region. As a result, the (NFmin) and their agreeing (opt) provided in the manufacturer datasheet are used directly without some(prenominal) modifications. More intermediate dataset that is not provided in the datasheet, is used in our investigation. This was possible by using the interpolation option provided by the Advanced send off Systems (ADS) from Keysight technologies 25.This manuscript is organized as follows Numerical example and simulation curb are presented in section.2 for demonstrating the usage of the graphical gain boundaries and the imposing of SWR on them for NFmin operation. In section.3, the idea of correlating noise, gain and SWR on a single graph using NF boundaries are presented and aided by another numerical example. The demonstration is discussed in section.4.GAIN BOUNDARIES FOR NFMIN OPERATIONAll the basic formulas used in the presented analysis is listed in Table.1.In 22, three expressions for the gain are provided. These are the transducer gain (GT), the available gain (GA) and the operating power gain (GP). The design of a microwave amplifier requires utilizing one or more of these gain criteria to clutches the required design goals. Graphically, all the previously mentioned types substructure be correspond as circles on the Smithchart. However, choosing which gain type to use in the design, depends on the transistor type and the required design criterion.+j1.0+j0.5GP circles+j2.0+j0.2+j5.00.0-j0.2As the rung CP increases, the Value of GP decreases-j5.0-j0.5-j2.0-j1.0Figure1.For NFmin operation, Different operating gain circles obtained by ever-changing the GP factor in (15)Table1.Basic equations used in the analysis in-C1 = S11 S-(10)b=SGA1 inSgA=2(11)out-S21b=L(2)g C-1 outLCP=P 2(12)S12S21S1 + gP(S222 2)in= S11 + 1 S (3)IPS12S21SrP=22out= S22 + 1 S (4)1 + gP(S22)(13)SWR= 1 + a(5)in1 aC2 = S22 S- (14)GPSWR= 1 + b(6)out1 bgP=S21(15)2GT=1 S21 sS112S2121 L21 Lout2. (7)1 S112 S222 + 22S21S12(16)CA=gAC-(8)G= S21I21 + gA(S112 2)IPmaxS12(KK 1)(17)1 2KS21S12gA+ S12S212g2NF = NFmin+4rnSopt2(18)rA=1 + gP(S11(9)2 2)(1 S2)1 + opt2(b)Figure2.Distribution of SWRout over operating gain circles for NFmin operation at 12 gigahertz a) A 3D portrayation with small cheer of SWRout displayed in lighter color, b) A plane view of the same figure with actual value of SWRout on the color bar.2.1. Imposing SWR on GT Boundaries for a Wideband, NFmin OperationConsidering the above choices, the bilateral property of the Device Under interrogatory (DUT) disfavor the usage of GT circles. Also, targeting a NFmin operation forces S=optand this prevents the usage of GA circles. As a result, GP circles in the L plane of the Smithchart were used.16141212 GHz11 GHz 10 GHz9 GHz1086 Maximum attainable GTMinimum attainable GT21212.51313.51414.51515.51616.5 run gain (G )PFigure3.GT vs. GP, where GTmin GTGTmax r egions for frequencies 9,10,11,12 GHz are shown in solid and dotted lines respectively.For a certain frequency of operation, changing the value of the GP factor in (15) will produce varied circles for the operating gain as shown in Figure.1. Each point on the circumference of these circles dally a unique value of Lthat can be used for matching according to the desired design goals. For further stripping of the device capabilities, SWR related to these values can be imposed on these circles. For illustration, only the SWRout levels are imposed in Figure.2 where lighter color regions represent lower values of SWRout. Although these are the desired regions to build our design around. However, for a wideband operation, reaching the required GT could prevent choosing matching points from these regions.Since S=optfor a NFmin operation, a graphical relation (GT vs. GP) will provide a pre- design information about the limitation of the selected transistor. Figure.3 explains this by speci fying GTmin GTGTmax over a couch of GP for the selected frequency points, the solid lines represent GTmax while the dotted lines correspond to GTmin . In fact a database was constructed for this figure that contain all values of Ls that correspond to each GP value. Later on, this database will be actually useful in choosing appropriate matching points for wideband operation. A immediate look to the figure revels that if targeting a wideband operation the desired GT should not exceed GTmax of the highest frequency. For example, the transistor cannot achieve GT higher than 12.73 dB for a selected frequency of 12 GHz.However, designing for a suitable SWRin and SWRout requires further correlation between GT and SWR. This is shown in Figure.4 where visual predication of the device operating boundaries are clear. The constructed database is extended by masking the contours of both SWRin and SWRout on the GT boundaries at NFmin operation. Since lighter colors indicate better values of SW R, it is obvious that for this particular transistor, the SWRin and SWRout are worsened for lower frequencies. Also, the direction of the color stripes are diagonal for SWRin and plain for SWRout, this is an indication that, for this particular transistor, choosing an appropriate GP and its subsequent Ls could result in a constant value of SWRin along the entire bandwidth.As an example to emphasise on using Figure.3 to design a wideband LNA operating at its NFmin, a targeted 12.7 dB is chosen for illustration in the extend of 9-12 GHz. From Figure.4, the color contour reveals that the minimum SWRout=1 corresponding to this GT level belongs to a 12GHz operation. Then, the accompanying Lpairs for frequencies 9,10,11,12 GHz are fetched for matching purpose as shown in Figure.5(a). The displayed Lpairs on the smith chart of Figure.5(b) were used by ADS to construct matching circuits to verify the expected SWR. the obtained simulation results are listed in Table.2 and compares favourab ly with those listed in Figure.5(a).163516501430122512 GHz 11 GHz 10 GHz 9 GHz1020815141212 GHz10811 GHz10 GHz4540359 GHz302520661510104455212 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 SWRinOperating gain GP(a)212 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 SWRoutOperating gain GP(b)Figure4.Imposing the contours of both SWRin and SWRout on the GT boundaries at NFmin operation,for SWRin and b) for SWRout+j1.0+j0.5+j2.0+j0.212 GHz11 GHz 10 GHzGHz+j5.00.011 GHz(a)-j0.29 GHz-j0.5GHz-j1.0(b)-j2.0-j5.0Figure5.a) Extracting the vestigial Lpairs from the constructed database for the shown selected point of operation according to the targeted GT ans SWR, b) Smithchart representation of the extracted L pairsNF BOUNDARIES FOR A UNITY SWROUTFor the condition of an output conjugate matching (ie. L=-), GA= GT and a unity SWRout isproduced. All values of Sthat corresponds to a particular GA circle gives the same value of SWRin.This is shown in Figure.6 where a contour of SWRin is imposed on GA= GT circles. T he tip of the conein Figure.6(a) corresponds to Spoint that will produce a coincidental conjugate match (ie. S=- L=-) where (SWRin= SWRout=1).However, this figure alone cannot correlative the (GT,NF,SWR)triplets to give a full visualization insight of the device capability in this case of operation.GT, SWRin and NF Correlation for SWRin=1Figure.7(a) illustrate the variation of SWRin along a range of GA= GT values where at SWRin=1, a synchronal conjugate matching occurs. The data in Figure.7(a) alongside GA= GT values and their corresponding NF are used to construct a database to help plotting the NF boundaries shown in Figure.7(b). For a SWRout=1 operation, this figure can be used to visually predict both NF and SWRin for any targeted GT. Since, the marked points on the plot represent SWRin=1 for each selectedTable2.ADS simulation data results after individually matching the IMN and OMN according to the matching points in Figure.5(a).FreqGTNFminNFSWRinSWRout9GHz12.7420.310.312.472 3.07310GHz12.7100.320.322.4382.31911GHz12.7510.330.332.4341.86912GHz 12.760 0.34 0.34 2.379 1.033 (b)Figure6.3D representation of SWRin over a range of GA=GT circles a) Isometric view, b) Plan viewfrequency, it is visually clear that a SWRin= SWRout=1 is impossible for a wideband, apartment gain design.For a wideband, flat gain operation with SWRout=1.Figure.7(b) reveals that GT flat max=GT max 12GHz is the maximum value of GT to attain a flat gain throughout the bandwidth. Thepreviously constructed database can be used to fetch S, Lthat will produce the visually targeted(GT, SWRout, NF) triplets from Figure.7(b). As an example, a targeted wideband operation (9-12 GHz)with GT=13.9 dB is chosen for demonstration, Figure.8 present the underlying S, Lfor the visuallyselected point. this point was selected to give the targeted GT for a simultaneous conjugate matchingat 12 GHz with NF1.4 dB. the source and load matching points for the selected frequencies are shownin Figure.9. Again, ADS was used to verify the estimated (GT, NF, SWR) triplets by constructing individual matching networks using Sand Llisted in Figure.8. Table.3 present the simulation results which compares favorably with the visually estimated values.Table3.ADS simulation data results after individually matching the IMN and OMN according to the matching points in Figure.8.FreqGTNFSWRinSWRout9 GHz13.961.343.061.0210 GHz13.981.332.341.0111 GHz13.931.371.881.0112GHz 13.95 1.33 1.12 1.03 oddmentIn this paper, rigorous graphical investigation to explore the selected device capabilities in the NFmin and SWRout=1 cases was presented. For the first case a set of GT boundary curves and contours can be visually used to explore the expected values of SWRin SWRout for a targeted GT at NFminoperation. While for the second case NF boundary curves were used to visually predict the NF, SWRin levels for6Simultaneous conjugate matching point10 =* , =* , for 9,10,11,12 GHz4.559 GHzS in Lout4410 GHz83.5GHz3GHz2164212 G Hz11 GHz 10 GHz 9 GHz32.521.5011.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5Transducer gain GT(a)012.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5Transducer gain GT(b)SWRinFigure7.a) Distribution of SWRin over a range of GT, b) NF boundaries for frequencies 9, 10, 11, 12 GHzFigure8.Extracted S, Lfrom the constructed database for the shown selected point of operation. output conjugate matching that will result a SWRout=1. For both cases, a full database was formed tobe used in the extraction of the corresponding matching reflection coefficients for any visually targetedoperating points. The construction and using of this database was found to make termination points extraction easy and accurate. And As described by 19 ItcanbeconcludedthatthenearfuturemicrowavetransistorisexpectedtobeidentifiedbythePerformanceDataBaseswhereallpossibleLNAdesignscanbeoverviewedusingthefulldevicecapacity.REFERENCESFriis, H.T.,Noise Figures of Radio Receivers, Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 32, No. 7, 419-422, 1944.Colli ns, C.E. et al.,On the measurement of SSB noise figure using sideband cancellation, IEEE Transactions on instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 45, No. 3, 721-727, 1996.Collantes, J.M. et al.,Effects of DUT mismatch on the noise figure characterization a comparative analysis of two Y-factor techniques, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 51, No. 6, 1150-1156, 2002.+j1.0+j1.0+j0.5+j2.0+j0.5+j2.0+j0.210 GHz12 GHz+j5.0+j0.212 GHzGHz10 GHz9 GHz+j5.09 GHz11 GHz0.00.0-j0.2-j5.0-j0.2